Abstract

Evaluation of performance of piles embedded in clayey soils is still difficult because of the complexity and interdependency of soil-pile interaction mechanisms. In this study, a systematic analytical method, named Pile Performance Efficiency Index (PPEI), was developed to quantitatively assess the relative performance of steel and concrete piles in clayey soils. Five criteria were considered as axial load capacity, settlement response, lateral resistance, installation possibility, and durability. Each criterion was quantified using geotechnical equations and normalized to a dimensionless value, then aggregated with appropriate weights to derive the overall PPEI. The values of parameters involved were obtained from the range of soil-pile properties in general design guides and previous research work rather than field data from individual sites. It was found that steel piles are more efficient in soft clays owing to their excellent installation capability and lateral resistance compared with concrete piles. On the other hand, concrete piles have a better performance in medium to stiff clays. The suggested framework offers a clear and repeatable methodology for comparison purposes in choosing piles; yet, it suffers from being an analysis-based approach without validation through any field or laboratory experiment data. Calibration of the models using on-site data and numerical simulations should be considered in future research efforts.

Keywords

Deep Foundation Engineering, Clayey Soil Behavior, Steel Piles, Concrete Piles, Performance-Based Analytical Model, Pile Performance Efficiency Index, Pile–Soil Interaction, Settlement Analysis, Durability Assessment,

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

  1. N. Bohlooli, H. Bahadori, H. Alielahi, D. Dias, M. Vasef, Rigid Inclusions for Soft Soil Improvement: A State-of-the-Art Review of Principles, Design, and Performance. CivilEng, 7(1), (2026) 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng7010006
  2. Gajbhiye, S., Khedikar, A., Abhayankar, S. (2025). Dynamic Analysis of a High-Rise Structure on a Deep Pile Foundation Using Advanced Computational Tools: A Review. SSRN. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5224683
  3. N. Alsanabani, W. Hamid, A. Alnuaim, K. Al-Gahtani, An Innovative Foundation for Enhancing the Mechanism of Transferring Vertical Loads on Sandy Soil. Scientific Reports, 15(1), (2025) 39885. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-23688-3
  4. P. Roshani, (2025). Calibration of Geotechnical Resistance Factor for Axially Loaded Steel Piles Driven in Alberta and Related Cost-Benefit Analysis (Doctoral dissertation, Université d'Ottawa/University of Ottawa). https://doi.org/10.20381/ruor-31450
  5. M. Aamir, P. Deb, Fiber Reinforced Polymer Piles: Exploring Properties and Performance through Finite Element Modelling. Journal of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation, 10(2), (2025) 162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-025-00675-9
  6. H. Li, Z. Yang, A Quantitative Approach to Estimating Pile Bearing Capacity using Multidimensional Datasets and Novel Modeling Techniques. Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design, 9(1), (2026) 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41939-025-01093-7
  7. M.A. Hafez, S.T. Amiri, A. Dehghanbanadaki, S. Motamedi, A.S.A. Rashid, I. Golpazir, Tensile Capacity Enhancement of Piles in Kaolin Clay using Recycled Crushed Glass: Physical Modelling and Numerical Analysis. Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design, 8(7), (2025) 328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41939-025-00894-0
  8. T.A. Pham, F. Vahedifard, A Practical Design Method for Energy Piles Incorporating Thermal–Mechanical Soil–Structure Interaction. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 62, (2025) 1-50. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2025-0129
  9. T.A. Pham, F. Vahedifard, (2025). A Unified Soil–Structure Interaction Method for Load–Settlement Design of Energy Piles. Canadian Science Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2025-0129
  10. M. El Gendy, I. El Arabi, A. ELbarbary, M. Hamed, Comparative Study of Structural Behavior of CFRP Tubes and Traditional Steel for Pile and Column Applications Compliance with International Codes. Discover Civil Engineering, 2(1), (2025) 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44290-025-00244-6
  11. Z. Wan, Z. Guo, J. Jin, X. Qian, G. Dai, H. Liu, Experimental Study on Axial Response and Side Resistance Mobilization Mechanism of Large Diameter Distributed Post-Grouted Drilled Shafts in Cohesive Soil. Acta Geotechnica, (2025) 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-025-02852-z
  12. J. Wang, N.S. Abbasi, W. Pan, S.N. Alidekyi, H. Li, B. Ahmed, A. Asghar, A review of Vertical Shaft Technology and Application in Soft Soil for Urban Underground Space. Applied Sciences, 15(6), (2025) 3299. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063299
  13. H. He, M. Xu, C. Yang, Experimental Investigation of Ultrahigh-Performance Concrete for Capacity-Protected Pile Shafts Connecting with Precast Columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, 152(1), (2026) 04025249. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSENDH.STENG-15079
  14. T. You, T. Yan, Y. Huang, S. Huang, H. Cui, Thermo-mechanical coupling performance analysis of Phase Change Material and Nanofluid Synergized High-Efficiency Energy Piles for Shallow Geothermal Energy Utilization. Energy, (2025) 137691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.137691
  15. B.U. Uge, Y. Guo, J. Zhao, Y. Liu, E.D. Shumuye, M. Mehmood, M.H. Tekle, A review of the Load-Carrying Mechanism of Connected and Disconnected Piled-Raft Foundations Under Static and Dynamic Loading. Sādhanā, 50(4), (2025) 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12046-025-02837-4
  16. J. Pan, B. Wang, Q. Wang, X. Ling, R. Fang, J. Liu, Z. Wang, An Adhesion–Ploughing Friction Model of the Interface between Concrete and Silty Clay. Construction and Building Materials, 376, (2023) 131039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131039
  17. J. Erazo, C. Solórzano-Blacio, G. Realpe, J. Albuja-Sánchez, Effect of Matric Suction on Shear Strength and Elastic Modulus of Unsaturated Soil in Reconstituted and Undisturbed Samples. Applied Sciences, 15(15), (2025) 8309. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158309
  18. K. Pan, Z.H. Shi, Z. Yang, R.J. Jardine, Y.Q. Cai, Undrained Shear Strength and Stiffness Behavior of Natural Stiff, Geologically Aged, Plastic Clays after Undrained Cyclic Loading. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 62, (2025) 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2024-0243
  19. S. Furukawa, M. Sato, T. Hirose, Y. Kimura, Compressive Strength of Concrete-Filled Steel Pipe Pile Head with Inner Ribs. Buildings, 15(3), (2025) 449. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15030449
  20. H. Moayedi, B. Kalantar, M.A.M. Abdullahi, A.S.A. Rashid, R. Nazir, H. Nguyen, Determination of Young Elasticity Modulus in Bored Piles through the Global Strain Extensometer Sensors and Real-Time Monitoring Data. Applied Sciences, 9(15), (2019) 3060. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9153060
  21. R. Vaidya, M. Mistry, (2025) Insights of Quality Issues in Bored Cast-Is-Situ Piles—Learning from Integrity Tests. In: D.L. Shah, J. Shukla, D. Choudhury, (eds) Deep Foundations for Infrastructure Development in India, DFIIndia 2023. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, Springer, Cham, 619. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-77937-4_16
  22. L. Guo, K. He, J. Zhang, H. Yang, Study on Influencing Factors and Evaluation Model of Hole-Wall Stability of Cast-in-Place Bored Pile in Complex Coastal Foundations. Buildings, 15(24), (2025) 4479. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244479
  23. M. Odelola, S.S.K. Dolati, A. Mehrabi, D. Garber, Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) Piles and Splicing Options. Applied Sciences, 14(2), (2024) 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020827
  24. V. Zanjani, G. Valcour, J. Silva, Pile Driving in Marine Structures: What Can Go Wrong. In IFCEE 2024, (2024) 168-177. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784485408.018
  25. H.H. Zhu, J. Wang, W. Zhang, W.B. Suo, B. Shi, A. Klar, Failure Analyses of Open-Ended Pre-Stressed High-Strength Concrete Pile During Driving: Insights from Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing. Acta Geotechnica, 19(8), (2024) 5277-5292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-024-02255-6
  26. J.J. Zhou, S.L. Zhou, J.L. Yu, J.J. Ma, R.H. Zhang, X.N. Gong, J.F. Ren, Experimental Study on the Frictional Capacity of Square Pile–Cemented Soil Interface with Different Surface Roughness. Acta Geotechnica, 19(9), (2024) 5819-5831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-024-02283-2
  27. Z. Gharibreza, M. Ghazavi, M.H. El Naggar, Load-Settlement Analysis of Axially Loaded Piles in Unsaturated Soils. Water, 16(2), (2024) 337. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020337
  28. Y. Yao, B. Hong, X. Liu, G. Wang, Z. Shao, D. Sun, Field and Numerical Study of the Bearing Capacity of Pre-Stressed High-Strength Concrete (PHC)-Pipe-Pile-Reinforced Soft Soil Foundations with Tie Beams. Applied Sciences, 13(21), (2023) 11786. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111786
  29. J. Ren, Q. Xu, G. Chen, C. Liu, S. Gong, Y. Lu, Flexural Performance of Pretensioned Centrifugal Spun Concrete Piles with Combined Steel Strands and Reinforcing Bars. In Structures, 34, (2021) 4467-4485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.10.052
  30. V. Kunasegaram, J. Takemura, Mechanical Behaviour of Laterally Loaded Large-Diameter Steel Tubular Piles Embedded in Soft Rock. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 40(6), (2022) 2967-3005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-022-02075-z
  31. W. Shao, X. He, D. Shi, Durability Life Prediction of RC Piles Subjected to Localized Corrosion in Chloride Environments. Engineering Failure Analysis, 136, (2022) 106184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106184
  32. J. Zhao, X. Meng, X. Ren, S. Li, F. Zhang, X. Yang, Y. Yuan, Review on Soil Corrosion and Protection of Grounding Grids. Materials, 17(2), (2024) 507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020507