Abstract

Motivation remains a central construct in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) research, yet its dominant orientation within Gulf higher education contexts remains insufficiently documented. This study investigates whether instrumental or integrative motivation predominates among foundation-level Omani EFL learners and examines the influence of gender and study level. Using a quantitative correlational design, data were collected from 450 students through an adapted version of Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (5-point Likert scale). A paired-samples t-test revealed a statistically significant dominance of instrumental motivation (M = 3.82, SD = 0.99) over integrative motivation (M = 3.36, SD = 0.90), t(449) = -12.86, p < .001, d = 0.61. Independent-samples t-tests indicated that male students reported significantly higher levels of both motivational orientations, though effect sizes were small to moderate. A one-way ANOVA suggested that integrative motivation increased significantly with level of study, whereas instrumental motivation remained stable. This finding suggests that instrumental motivation plays a central role in shaping learners’ orientation in this context, highlighting the need for curriculum alignment with professional communication outcomes. Implications for TESOL practitioners in career-focused EFL environments are discussed.

Keywords

EFL Motivation, Instrumental Motivation, Integrative Motivation, Gender Differences, Omani Learners,

References

  1. Al Balushi, M. (2022). Omani English as a Foreign Language Teachers’ View about Participatory Professional Development. Athens Journal of Education, 9(1), 45–62.
  2. Aldosari, H.S. (2014). The Entwined Effects of Attitude, Motivation and Gender on EFL Learning: A correlation Study. Studies in Literature and Language, 8(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3968/j.sll.1923156320140801.4183
  3. Alghazo, M.M. (2025). Students' Motivation towards Learning English as a Foreign Language: Instrumental or Integrative, Jordan Journal of Educational Sciences, 21(1), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.47015/21.1.10
  4. Al-Harthy, S. (2017). English Language Motivation between Gender and Cultures. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 7(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2017.v7n2p123
  5. Csizér, K. (2023). The L2 motivational self system. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, A. Henry, & S. Ryan (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of motivation for language learning (pp. 71–93). Palgrave Macmillan.
  6. Daif-Allah, A.S., Aljumah, F.H. (2020). Differences in Motivation to Learning English among Saudi University Students. English Language Teaching, 13(2), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n2p63
  7. Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M. (2017). Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. Guilford Press, https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1521/978.14625/28806
  8. Dörnyei, Z. (2020a). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Routledge.
  9. Dörnyei, Z. (2020b). Innovations and challenges in language learning motivation. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429485893
  10. Elsayed, E.H.A. (2020). Exploring Motivation in English Language Learners in Oman. Journal of Behavioral and Educational Studies, 7, 208-212.
  11. Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. Edward Arnold.
  12. Gardner, R.C., Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning. Newbury House.
  13. Khazaie, Z., Mesbah, Z. (2014). The Relationship Between Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation and Strategic Use of Language of Iranian Intermediate EFL Learners. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(1), 99–109. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.1.99-109
  14. Kubi, R. A. (2023). The influence of gender on attitudes and motivation towards learning English as a second language: A case of Ghanaian senior secondary school students (Master’s thesis, University of Bergen). Bergen Open Research Archive. https://bora.uib.no/boraxmlui/bitstream/handle/1956/21126/MASTER-S-THESIS.pdf
  15. Li, J., King, R.B., Wang, C. (2023). Motivational Profiles of EFL Learners: A Person-Centered Approach to Uncovering Gender Differences. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688231213030
  16. Moskovsky, C., Racheva, S., Assulaimani, T., Harkins, J. (2016). The L2 Motivational Self System and L2 Achievement: A Study of Saudi EFL Learners. The Modern Language Journal, 100(3), 641–654. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12340
  17. Saleh, S.J., Majeed, M.J. (2021). Motivation toward English Language Learning among Iraqi University Students. Middle Eastern Journal of Research in Education and Social Sciences, 2(3), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.47631/mejress.v2i3.294
  18. Salehpour, G., Roohani, A. (2023). Relationship between Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and L2 Speaking Skill among Iranian Male and Female EFL Learners. Bellaterra Journal of Teaching & Learning Language & Literature, 13(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/jtl3.803
  19. Saragih, T.Y., Subekti, A.S. (2024). Instrumental Motivation and L2 Speaking Achievement of Indonesian L2 Learners of English: A survey study. Folios, (60), 128-140. https://doi.org/10.17227/folios.60-20073
  20. Stenberg, I., Sundgren, M., Bostedt, G., (2025). The Boy Paradox: Exploring Motivational Factors in Gender Differences and Academic Achievement Across Ages 9–14 Years. Educational Psychology in Practice, 41(2), 211-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2025.2469242