Abstract

Aluminium-doped lead sulfide (PbS) thin films were deposited on glass substrates by using a low-cost nebulizer spray pyrolysis (NSP) method for photovoltaic applications. The Aluminium content was varied from Pure to 5 Wt.% to study its effect on structural, surface, optical, and electrical properties. X-ray diffraction results confirm the formation of polycrystalline PbS with a cubic crystal structure. The films show a strong preferential orientation along the (200) plane. The crystallite size ranges between 18 and 20 nm and changes slightly with doping level. Optical studies show a clear increase in direct band gap from 1.54 eV for the Pure PbS film to 1.66 eV for the 5 Wt.% Al-doped PbS film. This shift indicates a modification in electronic structure and defect states resulting from Aluminium incorporation. Electrical analysis shows lower resistivity and higher carrier concentration at 2.5 Wt.% Al doping. The results indicate that controlled Al doping improves the optoelectronic behaviour of PbS thin films and makes them suitable for low-cost solar cell applications.

Keywords

PbS Thin Films, Aluminium Doping, Nebulizer Spray Pyrolysis, Band Gap Tuning, Photovoltaics Semiconductor Thin Films,

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

  1. T. S. Shyju, S. Anandhi, R. Sivakumar, R. Gopalakrishnan, Studies on lead sulfide (PbS) semiconducting thin films deposited from nanoparticles and its NLO application. International Journal of Nanoscience, 13(1), (2014) 1450001. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219581X1450001X
  2. Z. Sang, C. Zhang, X. Yin, G. Qian, H. Liu, W. Que, High-performance PbS quantum dots photodetector based on NiOx/PbS-EDT heterojunction hole transport layer. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 1036, (2025) 181671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.181671
  3. L.-Y. Chen, T. Sun, T.J. Zhang, Y. Xie, J.M. Zhang, Modulating the band alignment, carrier mobility and optical absorption of graphene/MoS₂ heterostructure via synergistic effects of doping and strain. Surfaces and Interfaces, 46, (2024) 104024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2024.104024
  4. S. M. Chintapalli, L. Li, S. M. Thon, PbS colloidal quantum dot photovoltaics: progress towards infrared and flexible applications. Chemical. Communication, 61(74), (2025) 14073–14086. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CC03198B
  5. Z. Zafar, S. Yi, J. Li, C. Li, Y. Zhu, A. Zada, W. Yao, Z. Liu, X. Yue, Recent development in defects engineered photocatalysts: an overview of the experimental and theoretical strategies. Energy Environmental Materials, 5(1), (2022) 68–114. https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12171
  6. X. Gao, R. Guo and B. Li, Impact of Al³⁺ incorporation on microstructural pattern, optical and electrical behaviors of PbS:Al³⁺ films from an alkaline chemical bath. Physica Scripta, 96(9), (2021) 095810. https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/ac0a2b
  7. T.I. Alanazi, Current spray-coating approaches to manufacture perovskite solar cells. Results in Physics, 44, (2023) 106144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2022.106144
  8. S. Rex Rosario, I. Kulandaisamy, K. Deva Arun Kumar, A.M.S. Arulanantham, S. Valanarasu, M.A. Youssef, N.S. Awwad, Deposition of p-type Al doped PbS thin films for heterostructure solar cell device using feasible nebulizer spray pyrolysis technique. Physica B Condensed Matter, 575, (2019) 411704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physb.2019.411704
  9. S.R. Rosario, I. Kulandaisamy, A.M.S. Arulanantham, K.D.A. Kumar, S. Valanarasu, M. S. Hamdy, K. S. Al-Namshah, A. M. Alhanash, Analysis of Cu doping concentration on PbS thin films for the fabrication of solar cell using feasible nebulizer spray pyrolysis. Materials Research Express, 6(5), (2019) 056201. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aafb9a
  10. Z. Liu, Z. Xi, L. Gu, S. Yan, R. Zhang, X. Zhang, H. Wang, J.H. Zhang, W. Tang, Energy-band engineering and deep-ultraviolet photodetection of Ga₂O₃ alloys: a concise review. Nanotechnology, 36(36), (2025) 362001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/ae0043
  11. Q. Lv, R. Li, L. Fan, Z. Huang, Z. Huan, M. Yu, H. Li, G. Liu, G. Qiao, J. Liu, High detectivity of PbS films deposited on quartz substrates: the role of enhanced photogenerated carrier separation. Sensors, 23(20), (2023) 8413. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23208413
  12. S. Nasiri, M. Rabiei, A. Palevicius, G. Janusas, A. Vilkauskas, V. Nutalapati, A. Monshi, Modified Scherrer equation to calculate crystal size by XRD with high accuracy: examples Fe₂O₃, TiO₂ and V₂O₅. Nano Trends, 3, (2023) 100015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nwnano.2023.100015
  13. P. Makuła, M. Pacia and W. Macyk, How to correctly determine the band gap energy of modified semiconductor photocatalysts based on UV–Vis spectra. The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 9(23), (2018) 6814–6817. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b02892
  14. N. Wichaiyo, M. Kitiwan, Q. Shen, W. Yindeesuk, The effect of PbS colloidal quantum dots with CdS and ZnS coating on photovoltaic properties. Current Applied Science and Technology, 23(2), (2022). https://doi.org/10.55003/cast.2022.02.23.011
  15. Z. Zarhri, A.D. Cano, O. Oubram, Y. Ziat, A. Bassam, Optical measurements and Burstein–Moss effect in optical properties of Nb-doped BaSnO₃ perovskite. Micro and Nanostructures, 166, (2022) 207223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micrna.2022.207223
  16. L. Lin, Y. Chen, H. Tao, L. Yao, J. Huang, L. Zhu, M. Lou, R. Chen, L. Yan, Z. Zhang, Ferromagnetism and optical properties of SnS₂ doped with two impurities: first-principles calculations. Physical. Chemistry Chemical Physics, 23(11), (2021) 6574–6582. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0CP06322C
  17. S. Ravishankar, A.R. Balu, V. S. Nagarethinam, Effect of Gd³⁺ ions on the thermal behavior, optical, electrical and magnetic properties of PbS thin films. Journal of Electronic Materials, 47(2), (2018) 1271–1278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-017-5910-1